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Title: IB Biology SL Unit 3 notes
Description: Detailed revision notes (covering everything you need to know for the syllabus) for SL IB Biology students for Unit 3 from the new syllabus (first examination in 2016)
Description: Detailed revision notes (covering everything you need to know for the syllabus) for SL IB Biology students for Unit 3 from the new syllabus (first examination in 2016)
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3
...
U1
3
...
U2
3
...
U3
3
...
U4
A gene is a heritable factor
that consists of a length of
DNA and influences a
specific characteristic
...
The various specific forms of
a gene are alleles
...
3
...
A2
Comparison of the number
of genes in humans with
other species
...
At least one plant and
one bacterium should be
included in the comparison
and at least one species
with more genes and one
with fewer genes than a
human
...
1
...
Gene
a heritable factor that controls or influences a specific
characteristic, consisting of a length of DNA occupying a particular
position on a chromosome (locus)
There are 46 DNA molecules in a cell
Alleles
of a
gene are found
at the same
locus, but have
a different DNA
base
sequence
...
Single nucleotide polymorphisms
(SNP)
positions in a gene, where
more than one gene may be present
The Human Genome* Project (HGP) was an international 13year
effort, 1990 to 2003
...
3
...
U7
The entire base sequence of
human genes was
sequenced in the Human
Genome Project
...
1
...
[Deletions,
insertions and frame shift
mutations do not need to be
included
...
1
...
[Students should be able to
recall one specific base
substitution that causes
glutamic acid to be
substituted by valine as the
sixth amino acid in the
hemoglobin polypeptide
...
Both red blood cell and plasma are damaged, body can’t
replace them fast enough → anemia
A base mutation on the 6th codon, the mutation is only onherited if it
occurs in egg or sperm
3
...
S1
Use of a database to
determine differences in the
base sequence of a gene in
two species
...
The
cytochrome C gene
sequence is available for
many different organisms
and is of particular interest
because of its use in
reclassifying organisms into
three domains
...
2
...
2
...
Some prokaryotes also have
plasmids but eukaryotes do
not
...
2
...
Because there is only a single chromosome there is only one copy of
each gene
...
Features of Plasmids:
● Naked DNA not associated with histone proteins
● Small circular rings of DNA
● Not responsible for normal life processes –
● these are controlled by the nucleoid chromosome
● Commonly contain survival characteristics, e
...
antibiotic
resistance
● Can be passed between prokaryotes
● Can be incorporated into the nucleoid chromosome
● Plasmids can be used to transfer genes into bacteria
...
2
...
3
...
U4
In a eukaryote species there
are different chromosomes
that carry different genes
...
All individuals of a
species possess the same chromosomes, with the same gene loci
...
Chromosomes can vary by:
Length – the number of base pairs in the DNA molecule
Position of the centromere
Genes occur at a specific locus (location)
3
...
U8
The number of
chromosomes is a
characteristic feature of
members of a species
...
A chromosome number does reflect the complexity of an organism
The number of chromosomes possessed by a species is known as
the N number, for example humans have 23 different chromosomes
...
2
...
2
...
Haploid nuclei have one
chromosome of each pair
...
After this,
they are individual
chromosomes
...
Therefore
diploid nuclei have two copies of every gene, apart from the genes on
the sex chromosomes
...
A
haploid nucleus
has 1 of each
chromosome (N)
...
Gametes
are the sex cells that fuse
together during sexual reproduction
...
The fertilised egg cell (Zygote)
therefore is a diploid (2N) cell containing two of each chromosome
...
2
...
Homologous pairs
autosomes
3
...
U1
0
Sex is determined by sex
chromosomes and
autosomes are
chromosomes that do not
determine sex
...
X carries many genes in the nonhomologous region which are not
present on Y
...
Chromosome pairs segregate in meiosis
...
Males (XY) produce sperm which can contain either X or Y
chromosomes
...
3
...
U9
A karyogram shows the
chromosomes of an
organism in homologous
pairs of decreasing length
...
Karyotype is a
property of a cell—the
number and type of
chromosomes present in the
nucleus, not a photograph or
diagram of them
...
The chromosomes are visible in cells that are undergoing mitosis –
most clearly in metaphase
...
A micrograph are taken and the chromosomes are arranged
according to their size, shape and banding pattern
...
Karyotype
is a property of the cell described by the number and type
of chromosomes present in the nucleus (of a eukaryote cell)
...
3
...
A1
Cairns’ technique for
measuring the length of
DNA molecules by
autoradiography
...
coli:
● E
...
● The E
...
coli possesses a single circular
chromosome which is 1,100 μm long (E
...
2
...
[Genome size is
the total length of DNA in an
organism
...
]
Genome size
is the total number of DNA base pairs in one copy of a
haploid genome
...
2 billion base pairs
Canopy plant (Paris japonica)150 billion
T2 phage 164,000
Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster)130 million
3
...
A3
Comparison of diploid
chromosome numbers of
Homo sapiens, Pan
troglodytes, Canis familiaris,
Oryza sativa, Parascaris
equorum
...
2
...
Review 3
...
A3
3
...
S1
Use of databases to identify
the locus of a human gene
and its polypeptide product
...
3
...
Review 1
...
U1
Meiosis
a reduction division of the nucleus to form haploid gametes
One diploid (2N) body cells contain a homologous pair of each
chromosome (except for sex cells)
Chromosomes are replicated to form sister chromatids
Four haploid (N) gametes contain one of each chromosome
3
...
U3
DNA is replicated before
meiosis so that all
chromosomes consist of two
sister chromatids
...
3
...
[The
process of chiasmata
formation need not be
explained
...
● DNA supercoils and chromosomes condense
● nuclear membrane dissolves
● centrioles migrate to the poles of the cell
...
In the Sphase of the interphase before meiosis
begins, DNA replication takes place
...
sister chromatids
the attached chromosome and
its copy
Following Sphase, further growth and preparation
take place for meiosis
...
3
...
3
...
3
...
[Drawings
of the stages of meiosis do
not need to include
chiasmata
...
]
Orientation of pairs of
homologous chromosomes
prior to separation is
random
...
This results in recombination of alleles and is a source of
genetic variation in gametes
...
● Random orientation occurs each bivalent aligns
independently and hence the daughter nuclei get a different
mix of chromosomes
...
● Spindle fibres contract
...
● Orientation
direction facing by a certain pair of chromosome
Telophase 1:
● The nuclei are now haploid (N) not diploid (2N): they each
●
●
●
●
contain one pair of sister chromatids for each of the species’
chromosomes
...
New nuclei form
Chromosomes decondense
n
...
If crossingover and recombination has occurred then the
sister chromatids will not be exact copies
...
● centrioles move to opposite poles (perpendicular to previous
Metaphase 2:
● Pairs of sister chromatids align at the equator
...
Anaphase 2:
● The sister chromatids are separated
...
● Spindle fibres contract and the centromeres are split
...
● Nuclear membrane reforms
● Chromosomes decondense
● Cytokinesis begins, dividing the cells
...
● Fertilisation of these haploid gametes will produce a diploid
zygote
...
3
...
Crossingover between nonsister chromatids results in
recombination of alleles
● Random orientation of the homologous chromosomes means
there are 2n possible orientations in metaphase I and II
...
3
...
U8
Fusion of gametes from
different parents promotes
genetic variation
...
Genetic variation is essential for successful change by evolution
...
3
...
Many eukaryotes reproduce by sexual reproduction
...
Sexual reproduction involves fertilisation, the fusion of gametes (sex
cells), one from each parent
...
To compensate for the chromosome doubling during fertilisation
gametes undergo meiosis, which halves the chromosomes present in
●
gametes compared to the parent
...
3
...
Meiosissometimes mistakes
...
If the gamete is involved in fertilization, the result will be an organism
with too few or too many chromosomes
...
The individual
possesses three of chromosome 21 and 47 chromosomes in total
...
3
...
3
...
g
...
Studies showing age of
parents influences chances
of nondisjunction
...
It is often advisable for mothers in a high risk category to choose to
have a prenatal (before birth) test
...
Data from a
positive test
can be used
to decide the
best course
of action,
which at
times be to
abort the
fetus
...
4
...
3
...
U2
3
...
U3
3
...
U5
Gametes are haploid so
contain only one allele of
each gene
...
Dominant alleles mask the
effects of recessive alleles
but codominant alleles have
joint effects
...
He planted 1000s of seeds per trial and carried out many trials to be
sure of his results
...
The sample size required varies:
● The larger the natural variation the larger the sample
● Depends on the type of statistical test used
Dominant alleles have the same effect on the phenotype
whether it is present in the homozygous or heterozygous state
Dominant alleles
have the same effect on the phenotype whether it
is present in the homozygous or heterozygous state
Recessive alleles
only have an effect on the phenotype when
present in the homozygous state
Codominant alleles
are pairs of different alleles that both affect the
phenotype when present in a heterozygote
3
...
A1
Inheritance of ABO blood
groups
...
]
The ABO blood type classification system uses the presence or
absence of certain antigen on red blood cells to categorize blood into
four types
...
There are two different
types of agglutinogens, type "A" and type "B”
...
The ABO blood type is controlled by a single gene, the ABO gene
...
4
...
3
...
S2
Comparison of predicted
and actual outcomes of
genetic crosses using real
data
...
Monohybrid cross
crossing a single trait
Degrees of freedom (df) =N1
Chisquare value < critical
value(found from looking up
the number in front of the df in
a table) we support the
hypothesis of the inheritance
investigation
3
...
U8
Many genetic diseases have
been identified in humans
but most are very rare
...
The number of genes present in the human genome along with the
fact that most conditions are
autosomal
(2 copies of an abnormal
gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop)
...
3
...
U6
3
...
A3
Many genetic diseases in
humans are due to
recessive alleles of
autosomal genes, although
some genetic diseases are
due to dominant or
codominant alleles
...
Pedigree charts can be used to trace family histories and deduce
genotypes and risk in the case of inherited generelated disorders
...
g
...
Instead of acting as a lubricant, the secretions block tubes, ducts and
passageways, especially in the lungs and pancreas
...
Sickle Cell
Codominant
alleles
superscripts
represent
codominant alleles
...
The mixed phenotype gives protection against
malaria, but does not exhibit fullblown sickle cell anemia
...
HD is caused by a mutation in a gene on chromosome 4
...
4
...
The pattern of
inheritance is different with
sexlinked genes due to their
location on sex
chromosomes
...
]
Hermaphrodite organisms that can produce both male and female
gametes
The sex chromosomes are nonhomologous
...
Alleles in this regions are expressed whether they are dominant or
recessive, as there is no alternate allele carried on the Y
chromosome
...
E
...
:
haemophilia
colour blindness
3
...
A2
Redgreen colour blindness
and hemophilia as examples
of sexlinked inheritance
...
This locus is in the nonhomologous region, so there is no
corresponding gene (or allele) on the Y chromosome
...
The OPN1MW and OPN1LW genes are found at locus Xq28
...
If one of these genes is a mutant, the pigments are
not produced properly and the eye cannot distinguish between green
(medium) wavelengths and red (long) wavelengths in the visible
spectrum
...
The male has no allele on the Y
chromosome to combat a recessive faulty allele on the X
chromosome
...
It requires globular proteins called clotting factors
...
Therefore, the clotting response to injury
does not work and the patient can bleed to death
...
4
...
Mutation
is a change in an organisms genetic code
...
New alleles are created by gene mutation
...
6
...
Most mutations are neutral or
harmful
...
Mutations that occur in gametes can be inherited by
offspring: this is how genetic diseases arise
...
4
...
accident at Chernobyl nuclear power station
Radioactive isotopes released into the environment exposing humans
and other organisms to potentially dangerous levels of radiation
...
● Horses and cattle near the plant died from radiation damage
to their thyroid glands
...
● Drinking water (and milk) contaminated with radioactive
iodine at least 6,000 thyroid cancer attributed to radioactive
iodine
...
nuclear bombing of Hiroshima
● Elevated rate of Leukemia (with the greatest impact in
children and young adults)
● Elevated rates of other cancers
● No evidence of stillbirth or mutations in the children of those
exposed to radiation
3
...
S3
Analysis of pedigree charts
to deduce the pattern of
inheritance of genetic
diseases
...
5
...
Review 2
...
A1
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
● Typically used to copy a segment of DNA – not a whole
genome
● Used to amplify small samples of DNA
● In order to use them for DNA profiling, recombination, species
identification or other research
...
3
...
U1
Gel electrophoresis is used
to separate proteins or
fragments of DNA according
to size
...
The gel consists of mesh of filaments that resist the movement of
molecules in a sample
Through gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA are moved through an
electric field and separated based on their size and charge
...
2) Restriction enzymes cut DNA into fragments at specific base
sequences in each sample
...
4) Samples are added to a gel electrophoresis chamber
...
5) Heavier fragments stay closer to the origin and smaller
fragments go further
...
3
...
U3
DNA profiling involves
comparison of DNA
...
5
...
DNA profiling in paternity and forensic investigations
DNA is often left behind at a crime scene
...
In 1986 forensic DNA analysis was first used
...
Forensic investigators take many precautions to prevent mistakes, but
human error can never be eliminated
...
DNA samples are needed from the mother, (potential) father and child
in question
...
5
...
[Students
should be able to deduce
whether or not a man could
be the father of a child from
the pattern of bands on a
DNA profile
...
Who was the
perpetrator?
A = trace evidence
B = homeowner
C = suspect 1
D = suspect 2
C, coz we expect 100% match
as the cells left behind are the
perpetrator’s own cells
...
5
...
Genetic engineering (genetic engineering, gene transfer or
transgenics)
● All living things use the same bases and the same genetic
code
...
● So the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide remains
unchanged
...
Genetic modification
the transfer of genes from one species to
another
3
...
A2
Gene transfer to bacteria
using plasmids makes use
of restriction endonucleases
and DNA ligase
...
g
...
5
...
Bt Corn
(soil bacterium that produces insecticidal toxins
...
g
...
General Potential Benefits:
● Introduction of a new trait – Bt gene increases resistance to
pests such as the European Corn Borer
● Results in increased productivity – less land used / greater
yield / less crop damage (not really, just losses in bad years
have been reduced)
Less use of chemical pesticides – reduced cost / ecological
damage to wild the economic cost of farming (Bt toxins are
considered to be much more selective and safer for humans
and nontarget organisms than most conventional
insecticides)
● Increased disease resistance
● Less use of chemical herbicides
● Less use of chemical fetiliser
● Increased hardiness – better drought/cold slinity tolerance
and therefore can be grown in more locations / has a longer
growing season
● Increased nutritional content
General Potential Risks:
● Could be toxic to or cause allergic reactions in humans
● Transferred genes could mutate after testing
● Nontarget organisms affected by toxins
● Increases resistance to toxin evolves in pests
● Accidental release may result in competition with native plant
species
● Super weeds through crossbreeding the introduced gene
could be transferred to wild varieties
● Biodiversity reduced – both plant populations by direct
competition and animal populations directly and indirectly
could be affected
● Patent laws prevent farmers producing locally suitable
varieties – this would lead to unregulated field tests,
●
3
...
S3
Analysis of data on risks to
monarch butterflies of Bt
crops
...
● Milkweed commonly grows on the edge of corn fields
● Studies show some mortality in Monarch caterpillars fed
milkweed leaves covered with Bt corn pollen
3
...
U5
Clones are groups of
genetically identical
organisms, derived from a
single original parent cell
...
Monozygotic twins are naturallyoccurring clones, they are a result of
zygote or embryo dividing into 2, they might look identical but have
different fingerprints
Starfish, if damaged, can regenerate a whole body from a single leg,
another example of a natural clone
...
3
...
U6
Many plant species and
some animal species have
natural methods of cloning
...
g
...
Each new plantlet can separate to
produce a new plant
...
Tubers
, the swollen tips of underground stems, are storage organs in
plants such as sweet potatoes
...
E
...
identical garlic bulbs (to each other) develop on 1 garlic plant
3
...
U7
Animals can be cloned at
the embryo stage by
breaking up the embryo into
more than one group of
cells
...
splitting/fragmentation
embryo dividing into 2+ parts and each part
to develop into a separate individual with all body parts
3
...
S1
Design of an experiment to
assess one factor affecting
the rooting of stemcuttings
...
]
Investigating artificial propagation (
reproducing or causing to
reproduce)
Stem cuttings short lengths of stem that are used to clone plants
artificially
Check for the investigation on p 197
Not all stem cuttings form roots and grow to become clones
Many common plants root easily from stem cuttings producing
fullgrown (clone) plants quickly
...
5
...
Cloning differentiated cells
To clone an organism with desired traits is problematic as a
developed organism consists of specialised cells which are
multipotent, unipotent or cannot divide at all
...
In 1958 John Gurdon transplanted the nucleus of a (specialised
diploid) tadpole intestinal cell into an enucleated (nucleus removed)
frog egg
...
The method has been refined, but in essence remains the same
...
3
...
A4
Production of cloned
embryos produced by
somaticcell nuclear transfer
...
]
Cloning by somaticcell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
Creating a
genetically identical organism through transfer of a differentiated
diploid nucleus
...
2) Enucleate a donor egg cell
...
4) Implant into the endometrium of a surrogate mother and
gestate
...
Dolly the sheep was the first successful cloning of a mammal from a
differentiated somatic cell
...
Interestingly, she dies young –
but of agerelated illness
...
1) Remove a differentiated diploid nucleus from the cell to be
cloned
...
3) Insert the diploid nucleus into the enucleated egg cell
...
5) The resulting embryo is a rich source of stem cells which can
be harvested or cultured
...
Uses of therapeutic cloning:
● Create stem cells for transplants, such as in burns patients or
leukemia
...
● Much reduced risk of rejection of cells are they are genetically
identical to the recipient
Title: IB Biology SL Unit 3 notes
Description: Detailed revision notes (covering everything you need to know for the syllabus) for SL IB Biology students for Unit 3 from the new syllabus (first examination in 2016)
Description: Detailed revision notes (covering everything you need to know for the syllabus) for SL IB Biology students for Unit 3 from the new syllabus (first examination in 2016)