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---

Lecture Notes No
...

2
...

4
...
According to the Nature of Particles
a
...
Heterogenous
B
...
Solution
- uniform mixture (homogenous), composed of solute and solvent where solute is soluble
b
...

c
...
Decantation
- difference in specific gravity or density
2
...
Evaporation
4
...
Filtration
6
...
Centrifugation
- speeding up of settling process of a precipitate
8
...
Chromatography
- difference in solvent affinity

Properties of Matter
1
...
Extrinsic/Extensive

- INDEPENDENT of mass or amount (density, specific gravity, melting point)
- DEPENDENT on mass (weight, volume, pressure, heat content)

Changes that matter undergoes
1
...
Chemical Change
- change in both intrinsic and extrinsic properties
Evidences of Chemical Change
• Evolution of gas
• Formation of precipitate
• Emission of light
• Generation of electricity
• Production of mechanical energy
• Absorption/liberation of heat

•
•
•
•

Types of Chemical Reactions
Direct Union- Fe + S  FeS (all sulfides are BLACK)
Decomposition/Analysis- Na2CO3  Na2O + CO2
Single Replacement- Na + HCl  NaCl + H2
Double Displacement
- NaCl + AgNO3  NaNO3 + AgCl
Processes Involved in Chemical Change
1
...
Reduction
− 𝑂 𝑜𝑟 + 𝐻
3
...
Hydrolysis
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡  𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
5
...
Fermentation
𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒+ 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑒𝑠  𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑕𝑜𝑙

•
•
•

Nuclear Change – ∆ in structure, properties, composition of the nucleus  in the of the element
Nuclear Fission
- splitting of a heavy atom
Nuclear Fusion
- union of 2 light atoms to form a bigger molecule

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Protons
= Electrons = Atomic number
Neutrons = Mass number(p+n) – Atomic number
(p)
Mass no
...
– P
= 12-6
=6
Anion =
E = P – charge
=6–0
=6

Democritus
John Dalton

J
...
direction) of molecules/ions/atoms

•
•
•

SOLID

- definite shape and size, definite volume

LIQUID - follows the shape of container, definite volume
GAS

- indefinite shape and volume

SOLUTIONS – homogenous mixture single phase system of two of more substances

•
•
•

Saturated Solution

- maximum amount of solute

Unsaturated Solution

- less solute

Supersaturated Solution

- more solute than the solvent can dissolve

Factors Affecting Solubility

1
...
Temperature
• ↑ temperature = ↓ solubility of a gas
Exothermic
Endothermic

– solubility decreases with increase in temp (Mg citrate)
– solubility increases with increase in temp

3
...
Particle Size/Surface Area
• Decreased particle size = Increased surface area = Increased solubility
5
...
of equivalents of solute per L of solution

Mole (n) = grams/MW

FORCES OF ATTRACTION
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES – within molecules

1
...
Covalent Bond
- sharing
a
...
Nonpolar (equal)
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES – between molecules; physical attraction

1
...


Keesom (Dipole-dipole)
o Orientation/Alignment effect
o 1-7 kcal/mole

b
...


London Dispersion (Induced dipole-Induced dipole)
o Very close proximity  internal vibration will cause dispersion of charges
o 0
...
Ion-Dipole
- charged ion + polar molecule (salt & water)
3
...
Hydrogen Bond
- between H and electronegative atom (F, O, N, Cl, S) ; can be intramolecular (A=T) Physical
Properties of Systems
1
...
Constitutive Property

- depends on sum
- type and arrangement

| molecular weight
| optical rotation, refractive index

3
...
membrane
Also defined as the pressure required to prevent
osmosis in solutions
...
9% (w/v)
NaCl

Formula
Raoult’s Law – lowering of a vapor pressure
of a solvent is equal to the product of the
mole fraction of the
solute and vapor pressure of the solvent
– 𝜟𝑷 = 𝑷°(solvent)𝒙 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (solute)

∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏𝑚
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝟐
∆𝑻 = 𝑲
𝒃
𝒃
𝒘𝟏𝑴𝑾𝟐
Kb = ebullioscopic/molal BPE constant (0
...
86°C/m)

𝝅𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑜𝑟

𝝅 = 𝑴𝑹𝑻

π = osmotic pressure in atm V =
volume in L
n = no of moles of solute
R = gas constant (0
...
𝑎𝑡𝑚)
𝑚𝑜𝑙
...
08206

At STP:
T = 273
...
𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑚𝑜𝑙
...
4 L

Real/Van der Waals

𝒂𝒏𝟐
(𝑷 + 𝟐 ) 𝑽 (− 𝒏𝒃
𝒗

) = 𝒏𝑹𝑻

an2 = internal pressure per mole nb =
incompressibility
Rauolt’s

Henry’s Law of Gas
Solubility
Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressures

Avogadro’s

𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑿𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
X = mole fraction
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 ∝ 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚

Temperature

Temperature

Total pressure in a mixture is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of each gas
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 … …
...
022 X 1023
moles
𝑽₁
𝑽₂
𝑽
=
𝑜𝑟 𝑽 ∝ 𝒏 𝑜𝑟
=𝒌
𝒏₁
𝒏₂
𝒏
Rate of diffusion and speed gas are inversely
proportional to the square root of their density

Graham’s
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒

∝
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

1
√𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Diffusion – gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of another gas by virtue of kinetic properties
Effusion – passage of a gas under pressure through a small opening

ACIDS AND BASES
Electrolytes – conductors

•
•

Weak Electrolytes: incomplete dissolution
Strong Electrolytes: strong acids and bases, complete dissolution

Non-Electrolytes – will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity
Acid-Base Theories
Theory

Acid
+

Base
+

-

Arrhenius

Yields H or H3O

OH

Bronsted-Lowry Theory

Proton donor

Proton acceptor

-

E- donor

Lewis Theory

E acceptor

Pearson’s HSAB

Hard acids are e- acceptor with high positive
charges and relatively small sizes while soft acids
have positive charges and relatively small

ACIDS
• Sour taste
• Litmus: blue to red
•

BASES
• Bitter taste
• Litmus: red to blue

+ metals  H gas
+ carbonate and bicarbonate  CO2

•
•

•

Phenolphthalein: colorless
Methyl orange: pink/red

•

HCl, HClO3, HClO4, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4

•
•

•
•

Feel slippery
Phenolphthalein: Pink to violet
Methyl orange: Yellow
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2

NEUTRALIZATION – Acid + Base  Salt and Water
Titration
– progressive addition of a sol’n of known concentration to a substance of unknown conc
Indicator
– Substance that changes color at the end point
Neutralization point (Stoichiometric point/Equivalence Point/Theoretical Point)
– point when equal amounts of acid and base have reacted; non-observable
Endpoint
– Experimental approximate of neutralization point; observable pH –
the negative logarithm of the H+ concentration
Sorensen’s pH scale

For weak bases
Water Ionization

𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+]

Strong Bases

𝑝= −𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑂𝐻 −]

Weak Acids

𝑝𝐻 =

Weak Bases

𝐻𝐴 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3𝑂+ + 𝐴−
𝐵 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝑂𝐻− + 𝐵𝐻+
𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3𝑂+ + 𝑂𝐻−

For weak acids

Neutral = 7
Acidic < 7
Basic > 7
pH Calculations
Strong Acids

𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+]

or

𝒑𝑯 = 𝟏𝟒 − (−𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑶𝑯−])

1

𝑝𝐾𝑎 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑎
2
𝑝= 𝑝𝐾𝑤 − 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

or

1
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑤 − (𝑝𝐾𝑏 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑏)
2

BUFFERS
• Solutions that have the property of resisting changes in pH when acids or bases are added to them
• This property results from the presence of a buffer pair which consists of either:
- Weak acid and some salt of a weak acid or its conjugate base
- Weak base and some salt of a weak base or its conjugate acid
Henderson-Hasselbach Equation
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

Weak acids

𝑝= 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑

Weak bases

𝑝= 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

Buffer Capacity (Buffer action/Buffer efficiency/Buffer index/Buffer value)
• Ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH
Approximate formula
𝒑𝑯 = 𝒑𝑲𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈

[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]+[𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆]
[𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]−[𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆]

Exact formula/Koppel-Spiro Van Slyke’s Equation

𝜷 = 𝟐
...


Maximum Buffer Capacity
- occurs when pH = pKa
- 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎
...
Endothermic Process
2
...
Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only be redistributed or changed from one form to another
...
The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated
system not in thermal equilibrium almost always increases
...
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system
approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero
...
HYDROGEN (inflammable air)
o Lightest and most reactive element
o Isotopes:
a
...
Deuterium
- heavy hydrogen (D2O)
c
...
g
...
LITHIUM (earth)
o Lightest metal
o Depressant and Diuretic (SE: hyponatremia)
1
...
Lithium Carbonate (Lithase®, Eskalith®)

- Depressant
- DOC for mania

Lithium Toxicity (LMNOP)
• Lithium Side effects
• Movement (tremor)
• Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (ADH antagonist  polyuria)
• Hypothyroidism
• Pregnancy problems (teratogenic)
IP3 – Inositol triphosphate (affected by Lithium)
Mania
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...
SODIUM (natrium)
o Primary extracellular fluid cation
o Action: fluid retention
Acetate

Acetate of Soda

Diuretic, Urinary and systemic acidifier, Antacid

Bicarbonate

Soda Saleratus
Sal de Vichy
Soda acid Carbonate

Systemic antacid, Carbonating agent
SE: Alkalosis, Rebound hyperacidity, Edema

Fleet Enema

Cathartic, Source of P or phosphate,
Urinary acidifier(+ methenamine)  HCHO
(formaldehyde), NH3  urinary antiseptic

Dihydrogen Phosphate/
Biphosphate
NaH2PO4

Leucogen
Sodium Hydrogen Sulfite
Sodium Acid Sulfate
Washing Soda, Sal soda
Soda Ash
Monohydrate Na carbonate

Bisulfite

Carbonate

Chloride
Citrate

Rock/Table/Solar salt
Na3C6H5O7

Fluoride
Caustic soda, sosa, lye

Phosphite

Electrolyte replenisher, Tonicity adjuster,
Condiments, Preservative
Alkalizer, Buffer, Diuretic, Expectorant
Shorten the coagulation time (parenterally)

Saponifying agent (hard soap)
Reducing agent

Dakin’s solution
Chlorox

Hypochlorite
Iodide

All iodides are for cough

Lactate

Na3C3H5O3

Nitrite

NaNO2

Natrium, Nitrosum
Chile salt peter

Sulfate

Glauber’s salt
C4H4O6

Expectorant, Antifungal, Iodine solubilizer

Cyanide poisoning, Meat preservative

Cathartic
Primary standard for KFR (Karl Fischer Reagent)

Thiocyanate
Thiosulfate
Na2S2O3 • 5H2O

Oxidizing agent, bleaching agent
Disinfectant (Labarraque’s solution)

Antacid, Diuretic

Nitrate

Tartrate

Antacid, Carbonating agent

Anticariogenic (2% solution)

Hydroxide

nitrites,
nitrates,
thiosulfates,
thiocyanates
are
vasodilators

Anti-oxidant

Hypotensive agent (vasodilator)
Antichlor
Hypochlor

Cyanide poisoning with Na nitrite
VS in iodometry and permanganometry

D
...
Ammonium (NH4)
o Hypothetical alkali metal
o Pcol action:
a
...
Buffer
c
...
Anti-cariogenic (like Fluoride)

Ammonium Bromide

Household ammonia –
contains 10% NH4; is
known as 16° ammonia

Depressant/Sedative

(NH4)2CO3
Ammonium carbonate

Sal volatile
Hartshorn
Preston Salt
Baker's Ammonia
Ammonium Sesquicarbonate

Expectorant (ammonium)
Antacid (carbonate)
Basis of smelling salts (aromatic spirit of ammonia)

Aromatic NH4 Spirit

Spirit of Hartshorn
Spirit sal volatile

Respiratory stimulant

NH4Cl

Muriate of hartshorn
Ammonium Muriate
Sal Ammoniac
Salmiac

Expectorant, Diuretic, Urinary acidifier
CI: Impaired hepatic function
Treatment for Brominism

HgNH2Cl

Mercuric Ammonium Cl
Ammoniated mercury
White precipitate

NH4I

Ammonium Iodide

Source of iodide, expectorant, antifungal

NH4CH3COO
Ammonium acetate

Spirit of minderesus

Styptic

Strong Ammonia
Solution

Ammonia Hydroxide
Stronger Ammonia Water

Diluted Ammonia Solution
circulatory stimulant by inhalation

Ammoniacal AgNO3

Howe’s solution

F
...
COPPER (Cuprum)
o Only reddish metal, 3rd most malleable, 3rd best conductor
o Protein precipitant, Enhances physiological utilization of iron
o Component of hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase (Deficiency: Hypochromic anemia)
o Alloys: Brass (+ Zn), Bronze (+ Sn)
o Wilson’s disease | D-Penicillamine
CuSO4 • 5 H2O

*Cu3(AsO3)2 •
Cu(C2H3O2)2+
(Cu)3(C6H5O7)8

Blue vitriol
Blue stone
Caparrosa Azul
Piedra Lipiz
Paris green
Copper acetoarsenate

Component of Benedict’s, Barfoed’s, and Fehling’s
Antidote for P poisoning
Increase hematinic activity of Fe
Ingredient of Bordeux mixture  algaecide in pool
Insecticide (suicidal drug in the past)
Astringent in 8% concentration

B
...
5 nmt 8
...
gonorrhea and Chlamydia
trachomatis – no
...
GOLD (Aurum”, Shining dawn, King of all metals, Purple of Cassibis)
o Most malleable and ductile, Best conductor of electricity
o Dimercaprol
o Dissolved by:
✓ Aqua regia (3 part HCl + 1 part HNO3)
✓ Selenic acid
1
...
Gold Na Thiomalate (IM)
3
...
A
- treatment of gout and R
...


GROUP IIA: ALKALINE EARTH METALS
A
...
MAGNESIUM
o Lightest of all structurally important metal
o 2nd most abundant intracellular cation
o Chlorophyll component
o Compound of Grignard’s reagent
o Natural Sources:
1
...
As CO3 (magnesite, dolomite)
3
...
Laxative (PO)
2
...
Natural Ca-channel blocker (anticonvulsant – IM)
o Antidote: Ca gluconate

MgCO3

Magnesium carbonate
Magnesia

Antacid, Laxative

Mg(OH)2

Milk of magnesia
Magnesia magma

Antacid, Laxative

MgO

Calcined magnesia

Antacid, Laxative
Component of universal antidote

2MgO • 3SiO2

Mg trisilicate

Antacid (Adv: prolonged action)

MgSO4

Epsom salt
Bitter salt (Ref or
dissolve in cold water)

Cathartic (PO)
Anticonvulsant (IM)
Antidote for Ba and barbiturate toxicity

Mg3(C6H5O7)2

Lemonade purganti
Purgative lemon

Hydrated Mg Silicate

Talc
Soapstone
French chalk

Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4

Asbestos

Filtering agent
Clarifying agent
Dusting powder

C
...
D is needed for its maximum absorption
Hyperpara  HyperCa Hypophos
o PTH controls Ca levels in the blood
o Pcol action:
1
...
Contraction
3
...
Bones and teeth (98-99%)
o Deficiency states:
Osteoporosis (density) Osteomalacia (resorption) Rickets (mineralization) Hypocalcemia
CaBr2

CaCO3

CaCl2

Sedative/depressant
Precipitated Chalk
Carbonic Acid
Calcium Salt
Creta Praecipitata
Muriate of lime
Fosforo de Homberg

Ca gluconate

Antacid, Ingredient of toothpaste, dentrifices

Ca replenisher
Ca supplement and replenisher, Heart failure

Ca(OH)2

Slaked lime
Milk of lime
Calcium hydrate

Antacid, Saponifying agent

Ca(C3H5O3)2

Ca lactate

Ca supplement

CaHPO4 • 2H2O

Source of Ca and PO4

CaO

lime, quicklime, calx

Component of Bordeux mixture, Insecticide

Ca3(PO4)2

Bone ash

Antacid

CaClO

CaSO4 • ½ H2O
or 2 H2O

D
...
SrCl2

Chlorinated lime
Chloride of lime
Gypsum
Terra alba
Satin Spar
Alabaster Light

Disinfectant, Bleaching agent
Rodenticide, Prep of surgical casts and dental
impressions
Plaster of Paris – calcium sulfate hemihydrate

- Temperature desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®)

E
...
BaSO4
Ba meal, Esophotrast
2
...
RADIUM
o Radioactive element used for cancer radiotherapy & diagnostic purpose

GROUP IIB: VOLATILE METAL
A
...
25% sol’n
Pharmaceutical necessity in white lotion

Hydrated Zn Silicate

Natural Calamine

Topical protectant

Zinc-Eugenol cement

Dental protective

B
...
CdCl2
- emetic, treatment of Tinea infection
2
...
CdSO4
- ophthalmic antiseptic

C
...

2
...

4
...

6
...


Hg2Cl2
HgCl2
HgI
HgI2
K2HgI4
HgNH2Cl
HgO

Mercurous chloride (Calomel)
- cathartic, local antiseptic
Mercuric chloride (Corrosive sublimate) - disinfectant
- treatment of syphilis
- stimulant of indolent ulcers
Potassium Mercuric Iodide
- antiseptic, component of Mayer’s reagent
White precipitate
- topical antiseptic
Yellow Precipitate
- ophthalmic and anti-infective

GROUP IIIA
A
...
H3BO3 (Sal sativum, Boracic acid, Hydrogen borate, orthoboric acid)
• Lobster appearance
• 1
...
Antiseptic
3
...
Na2B4O7 • 10H2O (Borax, Na tetraborate, Dobell solution, Na pyroborate, Tinkal)
• Antiseptic, Eye wash, Wet dressing for wounds
B
...
)
Treatment of phosphatic calculi

Al2O3

Kaolin

Astringent, Antiperspirant

China clay
Native hydrated aluminum silicate
Soap clay, Mineral Soap
Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate
Pumice stone, Piedra Pomez

Treatment of silicosis

Adsorbent in diarrhea
Suspending agent
Dental abrasive

C
...
CARBON
o Crystalline: Diamond (purest native form) and Graphite (lead pencil)
o Amorphous: Coal and Anthracite
1
...
stimulant)
2
...
CO
- 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than oxygen leading to asphyxia then death
- Targets cytochrome oxidase
- Pathogonomic of CO poisoning: Cherry red color of blood and mucous membranes
Treatment:
1
...
Artificial air (He 80%, O2 20%)
3
...
SILICON
o 2nd most abundant element, Component of glass
1
...
Glass
Sodium silicate, Na4SiO4
3
...
Kaolin
Native hydrated aluminum silicate
5
...
Talc
French Chalk, Piedra Grasa, Soapstone, Creta Gallica
Zn (calamine)
7
...
Simethicone
Polymeric dimethyl siloxane
9
...
TIN (Stannum)
1
...
SnO2

- anticariogenic 8% solution
- germicide for Staph infection

- Toxicity: silicosis
- Na2CO3 + pure silica
- Adsorbent
- Adsorbent
- Suspending agent
- Clarifying, dusting
- Adsorbent
- Antiflatulent

I
II
III
NP

– borosilicate
– treated SL
– soda lime
– gen
...
LEAD (Plumbum)
Pb
o Astringent, Protein Precipitant
o Plumbism | EDTA , Ca Versenate (adults) , Succimer (kids)
1
...
Pb2(CH3COO)
Goulard’s extract
- astringent, antiseptic
3
...
TITANIUM (Titan, Sons of the Earth)
o Powerful reducing agent
1
...
ZIRCONIUM
o antiperspirant but banned due to granuloma formation

Cyanide (CN) - MOA: inhibits cytochrome oxidase (ETC)
Source: cassava, Na nitroprusside
Treatment:
1
...
Sodium thiosulfate MOA: CN to thiocyanate
3
...
NITROGEN (Mephitic air, azote, without life)
o Most abundant gas in air: 71% N2, 29% O2
N2
Azote
Cont: BLACK
N2O
Laughing Gas, Nitrogen monoxide,
Cont: BLUE
Dinitrogen monoxide
NO2
Nitrite
NO3
Nitrate
HNO3
Spirit of Nitre, Aqua Fortis/Fuerte/Eau Forte
B
...
Elmo’s Fire)
o White/yellow (poisonous), Red (non-poisonous)
o CuSO4
1
...
H3PO4
(Orthophosphoric Acid)
3
...
ARSENIC (Lewisite Metal)
o Protoplasmic poison
o Insecticide: Copper Aceto Arsenate (Paris green)
o Mee’s Line | BAL (British Anti Lewisite)
o First anti-syphilis (Paul Ehrlich) – Arsphenamine/Salvarsan/Magic bullet/Compound 606
1
...
AsI3
3
...
ANTIMONY
1
...
SbKOC4H4O6

Fowler’s solution

- Insecticide, Anti-leukemic
- Primary standard in the preparation of cerric sulfate
- antileukemic

Tartar emetic, Brown mixture

- Leishmaniasis
- Schistosomiasis; emetic

E
...
Bi Subcarbonate, Subgallate, Subnitrate
2
...
pylori

GROUP VB
A
...
OXYGEN (Empyreal air, Dephlogisticated air, Yne, Aire Vital, Fire Air, Aire Puro)
o Most abundant element, discovered by Scheele
o Uses:
Oxygen Requirement:
1
...
Anoxic
- inadequate O2 tension in air
2
...
Anemic
- lack of O2 carrier in heme
3
...
Stagnant
- blood circulation is retarded
o Container: GREEN
4
...
SULFUR (Brimstone, Shubari, Enemy of Copper)
o Antifungal, Parasiticide, Scabicide, Depilatory agent

H2SO4

Oil of Vitriol
Vitrilic Acid
Aceitede de Vitriolo

Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfurous Anhydride Antioxidant

Sublimed Sulfur (condensed sulfur vapors)

Flower of Sulfur
Asufre, Rhombic S

Cathartic
+ Lime  Vleminckx’s solution

Precipitated Sulfur (sulfur + metal hydroxides)

Milk of Sulfur

Prepared by mixing

Sulfurated Potash (K polysulfides + K thiosulfate)

Liver of Sulfur

Psoriasis, Parasiticide
White lotion (ZnS)

C
...
E absorption, Antioxidant (SeS2 /Selsun blue – anti-dandruff)

GROUP VIB
A
...
MOLYBDENUM
C
...
FLUORINE
o Strongest oxidizing agent
o Fluorosis (Mottled enamel, Abnormal bone growth)
1
...

3
...


NaF
SnF2
Na2FPO3
CCl2F2

- anticariogenic at 2% solution
- anticariogenic at 8% solution
- anticariogenic
- refrigerant, aerosol propellant (Freon®)

B
...
Hypochlorite (Na, K) - bleaching agent
2
...
BROMINE
o Dark reddish brown fuming liquid with suffocating odor
o Sedative/depressant
o Brominism (Skin eruption, Psychosis, Weakness, Headache) | NaCl and NH4Cl

D
...
Strong Iodine Solution (Lugol’s Solution)
2
...
Iodine Tincture
4
...
ASTATINE
o Only metallic
o Only synthetic halogen
o Only radioactive halogen

- 5%
- 2%
- 2% with 50% alcohol
- PVP (nonionic surfactant)

GROUP VIIB
A
...
Protein synthesis
2
...
Fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis
o Poisoning: Parkinson-like symptoms (resting tremors)
1
...
TECHNETIUM (Technetos)
o 1st element produced artificially
o Used in preparation of radiopharmaceuticals

RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...

9
...


Tc99m-Phytate
Tc99m-heptagluconate
Tc99m-IDA
Tc99m-Etidronate
I-131-Human Serum Albumin
NaI-125
Sodium Phosphate Serum
Sodium Chromate Cr 51
Gold Au 198
Chlormerodin Hg 197/203

Liver imaging & potency studies
Kidney imaging, determine renal function
Hepatobiliary studies
Bone imaging
Blood plasma volume/cardiac output determination
Thyroid function
Localization of ocular tumors, polycythemia vera
RBC mass, volume, survival time, scanning of spleen
Scintillation scanning of the liver
Scintillation scanning of the kidneys or the brain

1

Alpha particles (a 42 He2+)
• heaviest and slowest of all radioactive emissions (0
...
9 the speed of light)
• their emissions from elements do not alter the mass number but do alter the atomic number
• more penetrating power and able to travel 10 to 15 cm in water or penetrate almost 1 inch thickness of Al
• sometimes called negatrons
• emitted by unstable nuclei having neutrons in excess of protons

3

Gamma Radiation (t)
• photon of electromagnetic radiation
• demonstrates both wave and particle properties as do electrons and beta particles
• short wavelength similar to x-rays and travel at the speed of light
• no mass and no charge
• excellent penetrating power (very thick lead is required to protect against it)

GROUP VIIIA: NOBLE GASES
A
...
Carrier/diluents of medically important gases
2
...
NEON
o For advertising
C
...
KRYPTON
o Least abundant of all noble gases
o Have inhalational anesthetic activity
E
...
RADON (Niton)
o Synthetic noble gas
o Used for treatment of CA (cervical CA)

GROUP VIIIB
A
...
Hemoglobin
2
...
Ferritin – storage form of iron
4
...
Vit C
2
...
GIT distress
2
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...
Fe
2
...
COBALT
o Essential in development of erythrocyte and hemoglobin
o Component of Vit
...
CoCl2
2
...
Cobalt meta-aluminate

Lover’s ink, sympathetic ink
Rinmann’s Green
Thenard’s blue

- Hematinic, SE: constipation, tarry stool
- Fergon®, Advantage: less irritating
- Toleron®
- Hematinic
- Astringent, Styptic, tannin detection
- Astringent, Styptic

Schilling’s test
- dessicator indicator
- test for Zn ion
- test for Al ion

C
...
OSMIUM
o Heaviest/densest metal
1
...

E
...
PALLADIUM

- Catalyst in finely divided steel
- Catalyst in finely divided steel

BUFFERS
o
o

pair or related chemical compounds capable of resisting large change in the pH of a solution
composed of a weak acid & its salt (conjugate base) or a weak base & its salt (conjugate acid)

Phosphate Buffer System
• 𝐷𝑖𝑕𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑕𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑕𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑡𝑒
• D/A; insolubility of the phosphate salts of metals such as Ag, Zn, and Al and phosphate salt of growth
• Sorensen Phosphate buffer system – for ophthalmic (isotonic with body fluids)
Borate Buffer System
• used in preparations containing metals that would otherwise precipitate in the presence of phosphate
• CI in parenterals bec of toxicity of borates
3 Primary Borate Buffer System presently recognized:
1 Feldman’s Buffer System (pH 7-8
...
8)
3 Atkins and Pantin Buffer System (7
...
Bicarbonate/Carbonic Acid (HCO 3 -/H2Co 3)
2
...
Hemoglobin and proteins

- plasma and kidneys
- cells and kidneys
- red blood cells

Acidosis – below 7
...
42
COMPENSATORY MECHANISM OF THE BODY
Conditions

Causes

Buffer System
-

Metabolic Acidosis

HCO3 deficit (diabetic acidosis, diarrhea, renal failure)

HCO3 /H2Co3

Metabolic Alkalosis

HCO3 excess (administration of excess alkali, vomiting)

HCO3 /H2Co3

Respiratory Acidosis

H2Co3 excess (cardiac disease, lung damage, drowing)

Hemoglobin and protein

Respiratory Alkalosis

H2CO3 deficit (fever, anoxia, hysteria, salicylate poisoning)

HCO3 /H2Co3

-

-

Metabolic acidosis – treated with the sodium salts of bicarbonate, lactate, acetate, and citrate
Metabolic alkalosis – treated with ammonium salts (action is in the kidneys where it retards the Na-hydrogen exchange)

Electrolyte Combination Therapy
1
...
Electrolyte Replacement
• needed when there is a heavy loss of water and electrolyte
Official Combination Electrolyte Infusions
Ringer’s Injection
Lactated Ringer’s Injection
Oral electrolyte solutions

– 8
...
3 g KCl and 0
...
B12 (cyanocobalamin)

Zinc (Zn2+)

Constituent of insulin and carbonic anhydrase

2+

Copper (Cu2+)
Sulfur (S2-)

Formation of hemoglobin (increases iron utilization)
Constituent of oxidase enzymes
Constituent of proteins mucopolsaccharides,
heparin, biotin, detoxication

Clinical Manifestations of Deficiency
Anemia
Endemic (simple) goiter
Cretinism
Deficiency of Vit
...
ferritin
b
...
Malignancy and hemorrhage are common with
gastric ulcers
...


Antacids - alkaline bases used to neutralize the excess gastric HCl associated with gastritis and peptic ulcers
a
...

c
...

e
...


should not be absorbable or cause systemic alkalosis
should not be a laxative or cause constipation
should exert the effect rapidly and over a long period of time
reaction with gastric HCl should not cause a large evolution of gas
should buffer in the pH 4-6 range
should probably inhibit pepsin

COMBINATION ANTACID PREPARATIONS
a
...
Aluminum Hydroxide Gel-Magnesium Trisilicate (Gelusil, Tricreamalate, Triosgel)
c
...
Simethicone-Containing Antacids (Di-gel, Mylanta, Kremil-S) – simethicone - defoaming agent
e
...


BISMUTH-CONTAINING PRODUCTS
• intestinal hydrogen sulfate acts upon bismuth salts to form bismuth sulfate (result: black stools)
SALINE CATHARTICS (purgatives)
o Laxatives – mild cathartics, prolonged use causes “Laxative habit”
1
...
Bulk-forming Laxatives – from cellulose and other non-digestible polysaccharides which swell when wet
3
...
g
...
Saline Cathartics
– increase osmotic load of GI tract
NON-OFFICIAL SALINE CATHARTICS
Sodium Sulfate (Glauber's Salt)
Potassium Phosphate (Dibasic Potassium Phosphate, Dipotassium Hydrogen Phosphate, DKP)
Potassium Bitartrate (Cream of Tartar, Potassium Acid Tartrate, Potassium Hydrogen Tartrate)
Calomel (Mercurous Chloride, Mild Mercury Chloride)

FLAME TEST
METALS

Non-luminous flame

Under cobalt glass

Sodium

persistent golden yellow

nil

Potassium

violet

crimson

Lithium

carmine red

purple

Calcium

brick red

light green

Strontium

crimson

purple

Barium

yellowish green

bluish-green

Borate, Cu, Tl, P

green

Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Cu

blue

Ammonium

colorless

yellow

GROUPS OF ANION
Group No
...
Insoluble in acid and
base

B
...
nitric acid and conc
...
sulfuric acid

H2SO4

Phosgene

carbonyl chloride

COCl2

Plaster of Paris

hydrated calcium sulfate

(CaSO4)2 · H2O

Prussian blue

ferric ferrocyanide

Fe4*Fe(CN)6+3

Prussic acid

hydrocyanic acid

HCN

Pyrite

iron sulfide

FeS2

Quicklime

calcium oxide

CaO

Quicksilver

mercury

Hg

Rochelle salt

sodium potassium tartrate

NaKC4H4O6

Sal ammoniac

ammonium chloride

NH4Cl

Salt (table)

sodium chloride

NaCl

Saltpeter

potassium nitrate

KNO3

Sand

silicon dioxide

SiO2

Slaked lime

calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2

Turnbull's blue

ferrous ferricyanide

Fe3*Fe(CN)6+2

Vinegar

dilute acetic acid

CH3COOH

Washing soda (sal soda)

sodium carbonate

Na2CO3 · 10 H2O

Water glass

sodium silicate

Na2SiO3

Zinc blende

impure zinc sulfide

ZnS

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
o

branch of chemistry that deals with carbon-containing compounds with: H, O, P, N, S, X

Organic Compounds

Simple Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic

Alkanes

Aromatic

Hydrocarbon Derivatives
Alicyclic/
Carbocyclic

X

N

RX

Amines
1° RNH2

Alkenes

ArX

2° R2NH
3° R3N
4° R4N+

O

S
ROH

1° RCH2OH
2° R2CHOH
3° R3COH
ArOH

Alkynes
ROCNH2

ROR

RCHO

RCOR

RCOOH

RCOOR

RCONH2

RCOOOCR

Acid/Acyl
Chloride

RSH

RSR

ArSH

Carbon
• Contains 4 binding sites for other atoms to attach to it
• These four binding sites, when bonded with other atoms/molecules form a tetrahedron
• Group 4, Period 2
• Atomic No
...
Common
• Uses the name given when it was discovered
• Formic acid – ants
• Butyric acid – butter
• Prefixes: n-, iso-, neo2
...


IUPAC
•

Most systematic
No
...
of C atoms
6
7
8
9
10

Prefix
Hex
Hept
Oct
Non
Undec



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