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Lecture Notes No
...

2
...

4
...
According to the Nature of Particles
a
...
Heterogenous
B
...
Solution
- uniform mixture (homogenous), composed of solute and solvent where solute is soluble
b
...

c
...
Decantation
- difference in specific gravity or density
2
...
Evaporation
4
...
Filtration
6
...
Centrifugation
- speeding up of settling process of a precipitate
8
...
Chromatography
- difference in solvent affinity

Properties of Matter
1
...
Extrinsic/Extensive

- INDEPENDENT of mass or amount (density, specific gravity, melting point)
- DEPENDENT on mass (weight, volume, pressure, heat content)

Changes that matter undergoes
1
...
Chemical Change
- change in both intrinsic and extrinsic properties
Evidences of Chemical Change
• Evolution of gas
• Formation of precipitate
• Emission of light
• Generation of electricity
• Production of mechanical energy
• Absorption/liberation of heat

•
•
•
•

Types of Chemical Reactions
Direct Union- Fe + S  FeS (all sulfides are BLACK)
Decomposition/Analysis- Na2CO3  Na2O + CO2
Single Replacement- Na + HCl  NaCl + H2
Double Displacement
- NaCl + AgNO3  NaNO3 + AgCl
Processes Involved in Chemical Change
1
...
Reduction
− 𝑂 𝑜𝑟 + 𝐻
3
...
Hydrolysis
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡  𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
5
...
Fermentation
𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒+ 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑒𝑠  𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑕𝑜𝑙

•
•
•

Nuclear Change – ∆ in structure, properties, composition of the nucleus  in the of the element
Nuclear Fission
- splitting of a heavy atom
Nuclear Fusion
- union of 2 light atoms to form a bigger molecule

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Protons
= Electrons = Atomic number
Neutrons = Mass number(p+n) – Atomic number
(p)
Mass no
...
– P
= 12-6
=6
Anion =
E = P – charge
=6–0
=6

Democritus
John Dalton

J
...
direction) of molecules/ions/atoms

•
•
•

SOLID

- definite shape and size, definite volume

LIQUID - follows the shape of container, definite volume
GAS

- indefinite shape and volume

SOLUTIONS – homogenous mixture single phase system of two of more substances

•
•
•

Saturated Solution

- maximum amount of solute

Unsaturated Solution

- less solute

Supersaturated Solution

- more solute than the solvent can dissolve

Factors Affecting Solubility

1
...
Temperature
• ↑ temperature = ↓ solubility of a gas
Exothermic
Endothermic

– solubility decreases with increase in temp (Mg citrate)
– solubility increases with increase in temp

3
...
Particle Size/Surface Area
• Decreased particle size = Increased surface area = Increased solubility
5
...
of equivalents of solute per L of solution

Mole (n) = grams/MW

FORCES OF ATTRACTION
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES – within molecules

1
...
Covalent Bond
- sharing
a
...
Nonpolar (equal)
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES – between molecules; physical attraction

1
...


Keesom (Dipole-dipole)
o Orientation/Alignment effect
o 1-7 kcal/mole

b
...


London Dispersion (Induced dipole-Induced dipole)
o Very close proximity  internal vibration will cause dispersion of charges
o 0
...
Ion-Dipole
- charged ion + polar molecule (salt & water)
3
...
Hydrogen Bond
- between H and electronegative atom (F, O, N, Cl, S) ; can be intramolecular (A=T) Physical
Properties of Systems
1
...
Constitutive Property

- depends on sum
- type and arrangement

| molecular weight
| optical rotation, refractive index

3
...
membrane
Also defined as the pressure required to prevent
osmosis in solutions
...
9% (w/v)
NaCl

Formula
Raoult’s Law – lowering of a vapor pressure
of a solvent is equal to the product of the
mole fraction of the
solute and vapor pressure of the solvent
– 𝜟𝑷 = 𝑷°(solvent)𝒙 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (solute)

∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏𝑚
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝟐
∆𝑻 = 𝑲
𝒃
𝒃
𝒘𝟏𝑴𝑾𝟐
Kb = ebullioscopic/molal BPE constant (0
...
86°C/m)

𝝅𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑜𝑟

𝝅 = 𝑴𝑹𝑻

π = osmotic pressure in atm V =
volume in L
n = no of moles of solute
R = gas constant (0
...
𝑎𝑡𝑚)
𝑚𝑜𝑙
...
08206

At STP:
T = 273
...
𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑚𝑜𝑙
...
4 L

Real/Van der Waals

𝒂𝒏𝟐
(𝑷 + 𝟐 ) 𝑽 (− 𝒏𝒃
𝒗

) = 𝒏𝑹𝑻

an2 = internal pressure per mole nb =
incompressibility
Rauolt’s

Henry’s Law of Gas
Solubility
Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressures

Avogadro’s

𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑿𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
X = mole fraction
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 ∝ 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚

Temperature

Temperature

Total pressure in a mixture is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of each gas
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 … …
...
022 X 1023
moles
𝑽₁
𝑽₂
𝑽
=
𝑜𝑟 𝑽 ∝ 𝒏 𝑜𝑟
=𝒌
𝒏₁
𝒏₂
𝒏
Rate of diffusion and speed gas are inversely
proportional to the square root of their density

Graham’s
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒

∝
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

1
√𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Diffusion – gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of another gas by virtue of kinetic properties
Effusion – passage of a gas under pressure through a small opening

ACIDS AND BASES
Electrolytes – conductors

•
•

Weak Electrolytes: incomplete dissolution
Strong Electrolytes: strong acids and bases, complete dissolution

Non-Electrolytes – will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity
Acid-Base Theories
Theory

Acid
+

Base
+

-

Arrhenius

Yields H or H3O

OH

Bronsted-Lowry Theory

Proton donor

Proton acceptor

-

E- donor

Lewis Theory

E acceptor

Pearson’s HSAB

Hard acids are e- acceptor with high positive
charges and relatively small sizes while soft acids
have positive charges and relatively small

ACIDS
• Sour taste
• Litmus: blue to red
•

BASES
• Bitter taste
• Litmus: red to blue

+ metals  H gas
+ carbonate and bicarbonate  CO2

•
•

•

Phenolphthalein: colorless
Methyl orange: pink/red

•

HCl, HClO3, HClO4, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4

•
•

•
•

Feel slippery
Phenolphthalein: Pink to violet
Methyl orange: Yellow
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2

NEUTRALIZATION – Acid + Base  Salt and Water
Titration
– progressive addition of a sol’n of known concentration to a substance of unknown conc
Indicator
– Substance that changes color at the end point
Neutralization point (Stoichiometric point/Equivalence Point/Theoretical Point)
– point when equal amounts of acid and base have reacted; non-observable
Endpoint
– Experimental approximate of neutralization point; observable pH –
the negative logarithm of the H+ concentration
Sorensen’s pH scale

For weak bases
Water Ionization

𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+]

Strong Bases

𝑝= −𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑂𝐻 −]

Weak Acids

𝑝𝐻 =

Weak Bases

𝐻𝐴 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3𝑂+ + 𝐴−
𝐵 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝑂𝐻− + 𝐵𝐻+
𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3𝑂+ + 𝑂𝐻−

For weak acids

Neutral = 7
Acidic < 7
Basic > 7
pH Calculations
Strong Acids

𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+]

or

𝒑𝑯 = 𝟏𝟒 − (−𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑶𝑯−])

1

𝑝𝐾𝑎 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑎
2
𝑝= 𝑝𝐾𝑤 − 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

or

1
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑤 − (𝑝𝐾𝑏 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑏)
2

BUFFERS
• Solutions that have the property of resisting changes in pH when acids or bases are added to them
• This property results from the presence of a buffer pair which consists of either:
- Weak acid and some salt of a weak acid or its conjugate base
- Weak base and some salt of a weak base or its conjugate acid
Henderson-Hasselbach Equation
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

Weak acids

𝑝= 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑

Weak bases

𝑝= 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

Buffer Capacity (Buffer action/Buffer efficiency/Buffer index/Buffer value)
• Ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH
Approximate formula
𝒑𝑯 = 𝒑𝑲𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈

[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]+[𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆]
[𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]−[𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆]

Exact formula/Koppel-Spiro Van Slyke’s Equation

𝜷 = 𝟐
...


Maximum Buffer Capacity
- occurs when pH = pKa
- 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎
...
Endothermic Process
2
...
Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only be redistributed or changed from one form to another
...
The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated
system not in thermal equilibrium almost always increases
...
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system
approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero
...
HYDROGEN (inflammable air)
o Lightest and most reactive element
o Isotopes:
a
...
Deuterium
- heavy hydrogen (D2O)
c
...
g
...
LITHIUM (earth)
o Lightest metal
o Depressant and Diuretic (SE: hyponatremia)
1
...
Lithium Carbonate (Lithase®, Eskalith®)

- Depressant
- DOC for mania

Lithium Toxicity (LMNOP)
• Lithium Side effects
• Movement (tremor)
• Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (ADH antagonist  polyuria)
• Hypothyroidism
• Pregnancy problems (teratogenic)
IP3 – Inositol triphosphate (affected by Lithium)
Mania
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...
SODIUM (natrium)
o Primary extracellular fluid cation
o Action: fluid retention
Acetate

Acetate of Soda

Diuretic, Urinary and systemic acidifier, Antacid

Bicarbonate

Soda Saleratus
Sal de Vichy
Soda acid Carbonate

Systemic antacid, Carbonating agent
SE: Alkalosis, Rebound hyperacidity, Edema

Fleet Enema

Cathartic, Source of P or phosphate,
Urinary acidifier(+ methenamine)  HCHO
(formaldehyde), NH3  urinary antiseptic

Dihydrogen Phosphate/
Biphosphate
NaH2PO4

Leucogen
Sodium Hydrogen Sulfite
Sodium Acid Sulfate
Washing Soda, Sal soda
Soda Ash
Monohydrate Na carbonate

Bisulfite

Carbonate

Chloride
Citrate

Rock/Table/Solar salt
Na3C6H5O7

Fluoride
Caustic soda, sosa, lye

Phosphite

Electrolyte replenisher, Tonicity adjuster,
Condiments, Preservative
Alkalizer, Buffer, Diuretic, Expectorant
Shorten the coagulation time (parenterally)

Saponifying agent (hard soap)
Reducing agent

Dakin’s solution
Chlorox

Hypochlorite
Iodide

All iodides are for cough

Lactate

Na3C3H5O3

Nitrite

NaNO2

Natrium, Nitrosum
Chile salt peter

Sulfate

Glauber’s salt
C4H4O6

Expectorant, Antifungal, Iodine solubilizer

Cyanide poisoning, Meat preservative

Cathartic
Primary standard for KFR (Karl Fischer Reagent)

Thiocyanate
Thiosulfate
Na2S2O3 • 5H2O

Oxidizing agent, bleaching agent
Disinfectant (Labarraque’s solution)

Antacid, Diuretic

Nitrate

Tartrate

Antacid, Carbonating agent

Anticariogenic (2% solution)

Hydroxide

nitrites,
nitrates,
thiosulfates,
thiocyanates
are
vasodilators

Anti-oxidant

Hypotensive agent (vasodilator)
Antichlor
Hypochlor

Cyanide poisoning with Na nitrite
VS in iodometry and permanganometry

D
...
Ammonium (NH4)
o Hypothetical alkali metal
o Pcol action:
a
...
Buffer
c
...
Anti-cariogenic (like Fluoride)

Ammonium Bromide

Household ammonia –
contains 10% NH4; is
known as 16° ammonia

Depressant/Sedative

(NH4)2CO3
Ammonium carbonate

Sal volatile
Hartshorn
Preston Salt
Baker's Ammonia
Ammonium Sesquicarbonate

Expectorant (ammonium)
Antacid (carbonate)
Basis of smelling salts (aromatic spirit of ammonia)

Aromatic NH4 Spirit

Spirit of Hartshorn
Spirit sal volatile

Respiratory stimulant

NH4Cl

Muriate of hartshorn
Ammonium Muriate
Sal Ammoniac
Salmiac

Expectorant, Diuretic, Urinary acidifier
CI: Impaired hepatic function
Treatment for Brominism

HgNH2Cl

Mercuric Ammonium Cl
Ammoniated mercury
White precipitate

NH4I

Ammonium Iodide

Source of iodide, expectorant, antifungal

NH4CH3COO
Ammonium acetate

Spirit of minderesus

Styptic

Strong Ammonia
Solution

Ammonia Hydroxide
Stronger Ammonia Water

Diluted Ammonia Solution
circulatory stimulant by inhalation

Ammoniacal AgNO3

Howe’s solution

F
...
COPPER (Cuprum)
o Only reddish metal, 3rd most malleable, 3rd best conductor
o Protein precipitant, Enhances physiological utilization of iron
o Component of hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase (Deficiency: Hypochromic anemia)
o Alloys: Brass (+ Zn), Bronze (+ Sn)
o Wilson’s disease | D-Penicillamine
CuSO4 • 5 H2O

*Cu3(AsO3)2 •
Cu(C2H3O2)2+
(Cu)3(C6H5O7)8

Blue vitriol
Blue stone
Caparrosa Azul
Piedra Lipiz
Paris green
Copper acetoarsenate

Component of Benedict’s, Barfoed’s, and Fehling’s
Antidote for P poisoning
Increase hematinic activity of Fe
Ingredient of Bordeux mixture  algaecide in pool
Insecticide (suicidal drug in the past)
Astringent in 8% concentration

B
...
5 nmt 8
...
gonorrhea and Chlamydia
trachomatis – no
...
GOLD (Aurum”, Shining dawn, King of all metals, Purple of Cassibis)
o Most malleable and ductile, Best conductor of electricity
o Dimercaprol
o Dissolved by:
✓ Aqua regia (3 part HCl + 1 part HNO3)
✓ Selenic acid
1
...
Gold Na Thiomalate (IM)
3
...
A
- treatment of gout and R
...


GROUP IIA: ALKALINE EARTH METALS
A
...
MAGNESIUM
o Lightest of all structurally important metal
o 2nd most abundant intracellular cation
o Chlorophyll component
o Compound of Grignard’s reagent
o Natural Sources:
1
...
As CO3 (magnesite, dolomite)
3
...
Laxative (PO)
2
...
Natural Ca-channel blocker (anticonvulsant – IM)
o Antidote: Ca gluconate

MgCO3

Magnesium carbonate
Magnesia

Antacid, Laxative

Mg(OH)2

Milk of magnesia
Magnesia magma

Antacid, Laxative

MgO

Calcined magnesia

Antacid, Laxative
Component of universal antidote

2MgO • 3SiO2

Mg trisilicate

Antacid (Adv: prolonged action)

MgSO4

Epsom salt
Bitter salt (Ref or
dissolve in cold water)

Cathartic (PO)
Anticonvulsant (IM)
Antidote for Ba and barbiturate toxicity

Mg3(C6H5O7)2

Lemonade purganti
Purgative lemon

Hydrated Mg Silicate

Talc
Soapstone
French chalk

Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4

Asbestos

Filtering agent
Clarifying agent
Dusting powder

C
...
D is needed for its maximum absorption
Hyperpara  HyperCa Hypophos
o PTH controls Ca levels in the blood
o Pcol action:
1
...
Contraction
3
...
Bones and teeth (98-99%)
o Deficiency states:
Osteoporosis (density) Osteomalacia (resorption) Rickets (mineralization) Hypocalcemia
CaBr2

CaCO3

CaCl2

Sedative/depressant
Precipitated Chalk
Carbonic Acid
Calcium Salt
Creta Praecipitata
Muriate of lime
Fosforo de Homberg

Ca gluconate

Antacid, Ingredient of toothpaste, dentrifices

Ca replenisher
Ca supplement and replenisher, Heart failure

Ca(OH)2

Slaked lime
Milk of lime
Calcium hydrate

Antacid, Saponifying agent

Ca(C3H5O3)2

Ca lactate

Ca supplement

CaHPO4 • 2H2O

Source of Ca and PO4

CaO

lime, quicklime, calx

Component of Bordeux mixture, Insecticide

Ca3(PO4)2

Bone ash

Antacid

CaClO

CaSO4 • ½ H2O
or 2 H2O

D
...
SrCl2

Chlorinated lime
Chloride of lime
Gypsum
Terra alba
Satin Spar
Alabaster Light

Disinfectant, Bleaching agent
Rodenticide, Prep of surgical casts and dental
impressions
Plaster of Paris – calcium sulfate hemihydrate

- Temperature desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®)

E
...
BaSO4
Ba meal, Esophotrast
2
...
RADIUM
o Radioactive element used for cancer radiotherapy & diagnostic purpose

GROUP IIB: VOLATILE METAL
A
...
25% sol’n
Pharmaceutical necessity in white lotion

Hydrated Zn Silicate

Natural Calamine

Topical protectant

Zinc-Eugenol cement

Dental protective

B
...
CdCl2
- emetic, treatment of Tinea infection
2
...
CdSO4
- ophthalmic antiseptic

C
...

2
...

4
...

6
...


Hg2Cl2
HgCl2
HgI
HgI2
K2HgI4
HgNH2Cl
HgO

Mercurous chloride (Calomel)
- cathartic, local antiseptic
Mercuric chloride (Corrosive sublimate) - disinfectant
- treatment of syphilis
- stimulant of indolent ulcers
Potassium Mercuric Iodide
- antiseptic, component of Mayer’s reagent
White precipitate
- topical antiseptic
Yellow Precipitate
- ophthalmic and anti-infective

GROUP IIIA
A
...
H3BO3 (Sal sativum, Boracic acid, Hydrogen borate, orthoboric acid)
• Lobster appearance
• 1
...
Antiseptic
3
...
Na2B4O7 • 10H2O (Borax, Na tetraborate, Dobell solution, Na pyroborate, Tinkal)
• Antiseptic, Eye wash, Wet dressing for wounds
B
...
)
Treatment of phosphatic calculi

Al2O3

Kaolin

Astringent, Antiperspirant

China clay
Native hydrated aluminum silicate
Soap clay, Mineral Soap
Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate
Pumice stone, Piedra Pomez

Treatment of silicosis

Adsorbent in diarrhea
Suspending agent
Dental abrasive

C
...
CARBON
o Crystalline: Diamond (purest native form) and Graphite (lead pencil)
o Amorphous: Coal and Anthracite
1
...
stimulant)
2
...
CO
- 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than oxygen leading to asphyxia then death
- Targets cytochrome oxidase
- Pathogonomic of CO poisoning: Cherry red color of blood and mucous membranes
Treatment:
1
...
Artificial air (He 80%, O2 20%)
3
...
SILICON
o 2nd most abundant element, Component of glass
1
...
Glass
Sodium silicate, Na4SiO4
3

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